Shivaji Bhonsle (Marathi [ʃiʋaˑɟiˑ bʱoˑs(ə)leˑ]; c. 1627/1630[2] – 3 April 1680) was an Indian
warrior king and a member of the Bhonsle Maratha clan. Shivaji, in 1674, carved out an
enclave from the declining Adilshahi sultanate of Bijapurthat
formed the genesis of an independent Maratha kingdom with Raigad as its capital.
Shivaji established a competent and
progressive civil rule with the help of a disciplined military and
well-structured administrative organisations. He innovated military tactics,
pioneering the guerilla warfare methods
(Shiva sutraor ganimi kava), which leveraged strategic
factors like geography, speed, and surprise and focused pinpoint attacks to
defeat his larger and more powerful enemies. From a small contingent of 2,000
soldiers inherited from his father, Shivaji created a force of 100,000 soldiers;
he built and restored strategically located forts both inland and coastal to
safeguard his territory. He revived ancient Hindu political
traditions and court conventions and promoted the usage of Marathi and Sanskrit, rather than Persian, in court and administration.
Shivaji's legacy was to vary by observer
and time but began to take on increased importance with the emergence of the Indian
independence movement, as many elevated him as a proto-nationalist
and hero of the Hindus. Particularly in Maharashtra, debates over his history
and role have engendered great passion and sometimes even violence as disparate
groups have sought to characterise him and his legacy.
Contents
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o 9.2 Navy
Shivaji's birthplace on
Shivneri Fort.
Main
article: Early life of Shivaji
Shivaji was born in the hill-fort of Shivneri, near the city of Junnar in Pune districtaround the year 1630. The
Government of Maharashtra accepts 19 February 1630 as his birthdate; other
suggested dates include 6 April 1627 or other dates near this day.[3][4][5] Per legend, his mother named him Shivaji in
honour of the goddessShivai,
to whom she had prayed for a healthy child.[citation needed]
Shivaji's father Shahaji Bhonsle was Maratha general who served the Deccan Sultanates.[6] His mother was Jijabai, the
daughter of Lakhujirao Jadhav of Sindkhed. At the time of Shivaji's birth, the
power in Deccan was shared by three Islamic sultanates: Bijapur, Ahmednagar,
and Golconda.
Shahaji often changed his loyalty between the Nizamshahi of
Ahmadnagar, the Adilshah of Bijapur and the Mughals, but always kept his jagir (fiefdom)
at Pune and his small army with him.[6]
Shivaji with Jijabai.
Shivaji was extremely devoted to his mother
Jijabai, who was deeply religious. This religious environment had a great
impact on Shivaji, and he carefully studied the two great Hindu epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata; these were to influence his
lifelong defence of Hindu values.[7] Throughout his life he was
deeply interested in religious teachings, and regularly sought the company of
Hindu and Sufi saints.[4]
Shahaji, meanwhile had married a second
wife, Tuka Bai Mohite,
and moved to take an assignment in Karnataka, leaving Shivaji and his mother in
Pune. Shahaji entrusted the two to his friend Dadoji Kondadev
Kulkarni, who provided them a mansion to live in, profitably
administered the Pune jagir, and mentored the young Shivaji. The boy was a keen
outdoorsman, but had little formal education, and was likely illiterate.[8] Shivaji drew his earliest trusted comrades
and a large number of his soldiers from the Maval region,[when?] including Yesaji
Kank, Suryaji Kakade, Baji Pasalkar, Baji Prabhu Deshpande and Tanaji Malusare.[9] In the company of his Maval comrades,
Shivaji wandered over the hills and forests of the Sahyadri range, hardening himself and
acquiring first-hand knowledge of the land, which was to later prove applicable
to his military endeavours.[7]:128
At the age of 12, Shivaji was taken to
Bangalore where he, his elder brother Sambhaji and his stepbrother Ekoji I were further formally trained. He
married Saibai, a member of the prominent Nimbalkar family in 1640.[10]:60 Around 1645–46, the teenage
Shivaji first expressed his concept for Hindavi swarajya, in a
letter to Dadaji
Naras Prabhu.[11][12][13][14]
In 1645, the 16-year-old Shivaji bribed or
persuaded the Bijapuri commander of the Torna Fort, Inayat Khan, to hand over the
possession of the fort to him.[4]:26[10]:61[15]:268 Firangoji Narsala, who held the Chakan fort
professed his loyalty to Shivaji and the fort of Kondana was acquired by
bribing the Adilshahi governor.[4]:26 On 25 July 1648, Shahaji was
imprisoned by Baji Ghorpade under the orders of the current Adilshah, Mohammed Adil Shah,
in a bid to contain Shivaji.[16]Accounts vary, with some saying
Shahaji was conditionally released in 1649 after Shivaji and Sambhaji
surrendered the forts of Kondhana, Bangalore and Kandarpi,[4] others saying he was imprisoned
until 1653 or 1655; during this period Shivaji maintained a low profile.[17] After his release, Shahaji
retired from public life, and died around 1664–1665 during a hunting accident.
Following his father's death, Shivaji resumed raiding, seizing the kingdom of Javali from a neighbouring Maratha chieftain in 1656.[18]
Death of Afzal Khan
In 1659, Adilshah sent Afzal Khan,
an experienced and veteran general to destroy Shivaji in an effort to put down
what he saw as a regional revolt.
The two met in a hut at the foothills of
Pratapgad fort on 10 November 1659. The arrangements had dictated that each
come armed only with a sword, and attended by a follower. Shivaji, either
suspecting Afzal Khan would attack him[4]:47–52[19] or secretly planning to
attack,[20] wore armour beneath his
clothes, concealed a bagh nakh (metal
"tiger claw") on his left arm, and had a dagger in his right hand.[15]:22Accounts vary on whether Shivaji
or Afzal Khan struck the first blow:[19] the Maratha chronicles accuse
Afzal Khan of treachery, while the Persian-language chronicles attribute the
treachery to Shivaji.[21][22] In the fight, Afzal Khan's
dagger was stopped by Shivaji's armour, and Shivaji's weapons inflicted mortal
wounds on the general; Shivaji then signalled his hidden troops to launch the
assault on the Bijapuris.[20]
Main
article: Battle of Pratapgarh
Pratapgad fort
In the ensuing Battle of Pratapgarh fought
on 10 November 1659, Shivaji's forces decisively defeated the Bijapur
Sultanate's forces.[23] The agile Maratha infantry and
cavalry inflicted rapid strikes on Bijapuri units, attacked the Bijapuri
cavalry before it was prepared for battle, and pursued retreating troops toward Wai. More than 3,000 soldiers of the Bijapur
army were killed and two sons of Afzal Khan were taken as prisoners.[4]:53
This unexpected and unlikely victory made
Shivaji a hero of Maratha folklore and a legendary figure among his people. The
large quantities of captured weapons, horses, armour and other materials helped
to strengthen the nascent and emerging Maratha army. The Mughal emperor Aurangzeb now identified Shivaji as a
major threat to the mighty Mughal Empire. Soon thereafter Shivaji, Shahaji and
Netaji Palkar (the chief of the Maratha cavalry) decided to attack and defeat
the Adilshahi kingdom at Bijapur.[citation needed]
Main
article: Battle of Kolhapur
To counter the loss at Pratapgad and to
defeat the newly emerging Maratha power, another army, this time numbering over
10,000, was sent against Shivaji, commanded by Bijapur's Abyssinian general Rustamjaman.
With a cavalry force of 5,000 Marathas, Shivaji attacked them near Kolhapur on 28 December 1659. In a swift
movement, Shivaji led a full frontal attack at the center of the enemy forces
while two other portions of his cavalry attacked the flanks. This battle lasted
for several hours and at the end Bijapuri forces were soundly defeated and
Rustamjaman fled the battlefield. Adilshahi forces lost about 2,000 horses and
12 elephants to the Marathas.[citation needed] This
victory alarmed Aurangazeb, who now derisively referred to Shivaji as the
"Mountain Rat", and prepared to address this rising Maratha threat.[24]
Plaque to commemorate the
entrance to Paavankhind
Main
article: Battle of Pavan Khind
In 1660, Adilshah sent the his general Siddi
Jauhar to attack Shivaji's southern border, in alliance with
the Mughals who planned to attack from the north. At that time, Shivaji was
encamped at Panhala fort near
present-day Kolhapur with his
forces. Siddi Jauhar's army besieged Panhala in mid-1660, cutting off supply
routes to the fort. During the bombardment of Panhala, Siddhi Jahuar had
purchased grenades from the British at Rajapur to increase his efficacy, and
also hired some English artillerymen to bombard the fort, conspicuously flying
a flag used by the English. This perceived betrayal angered Shivaji, who in
December would exact revenge by plundering the English factory at Rajapur and
capturing four of the factors, imprisoning them until mid-1663.[25]
Accounts vary as to the end of the siege,
with some accounts stating that Shivaji escaped from the encircled fort and
withdrew to Ragna,
following which Ali
Adil Shah personally came to take charge of the siege,
capturing the fort after four months besiegement.[26] Other accounts state that
after months of siege, Shivaji negotiated with Siddhi Jahuar and handed over
the fort on 22 September 1660, withdrawing to Vishalgad;[27] Shivaji would later re-take
Panhala in 1673.[26]
There is some dispute over the circumstances
of Shivaji's withdrawal (treaty or escape) and his destination (Ragna or
Vishalgad), but the popular story details his night movement to Vishalgad and a
sacrificial rear-guard action to allow him to escape.[28] Per these accounts, Shivaji
withdrew from Panhala by cover of night, and as he was pursued by the enemy
cavalry, so his Maratha sardar Baji Prabhu Deshpande of
Bandal Deshmukh, along with 300 soldiers, volunteered
to fight to the death to hold back the enemy at Ghod Khind ("horse
ravine") to give Shivaji and the rest of the army a chance to reach the
safety of the Vishalgad fort.[29] In the ensuing Battle of Pavan Khind,
the smaller Maratha force held back the larger enemy to buy time for Shivaji to
escape. Baji Prabhu Deshpande was wounded but continued to fight until he heard
the sound of cannon fire from Vishalgad,[30] signalling Shivaji had safely
reached the fort, on the evening of 13 July 1660.[31]Ghod Khind (khind meaning
"a narrow mountain pass") was later renamed Paavan Khind ("sacred
pass") in honour of Bajiprabhu Deshpande, Shibosingh Jadhav, Fuloji, and
all other soldiers who fought in there.[31]
Up until 1657, Shivaji maintained peaceful
relations with the Mughal Empire. Shivaji offered his assistance to Aurangzeb
in conquering Bijapur and in return, he was assured of the formal recognition
of his right to the Bijapuri forts and villages under his possession.[4]:37 Shivaji's confrontations
with the Mughals began in March 1657, when two of Shivaji's officers raided the
Mughal territory near Ahmednagar.[32] This was followed by raids in Junnar, with Shivaji carrying off 300,000 hun in cash and 200 horses.[4]:38 Aurangzeb responded to the
raids by sending Nasiri
Khan, who defeated the forces of Shivaji at Ahmednagar. However, the
countermeasures were interrupted by the rainy season and the battle of
succession for the Mughal throne following the illness of Shah Jahan.
Main
article: Battle of Chakan
Upon the request of Badi Begum
of Bijapur, Aurangzeb sent his maternal uncle Shaista Khan, with an army numbering over
150,000 along with a powerful artillery division in January 1660 to attack
Shivaji in conjunction with Bijapur's army led by Siddi Jauhar. Shaista Khan,
with his better-equipped and -provisioned army of 300,000 seized Pune and the
nearby fort ofChakan,
besieging it for a month and a half until breaching the walls. Shaista Khan
pressed his advantage of having a larger, better provisioned and heavily armed
Mughal army and made inroads into some of the Maratha territory, seizing the
city of Pune and establishing his residence at Shivaji's palace of Lal Mahal.[citation needed]
In April 1663, Shivaji launched a surprise
attack on Shaista Khan in Pune; accounts of the story differ in the popular
imagination, but there is some agreement that Shivaji and band of some 200
followers infiltrated Pune, using a wedding procession as cover. They overcame
the palace guards, breached the wall, and entered Shaista Khan's quarters,
killing those they found there. Shaista Khan escaped, losing his thumb in the
melee, but one of his sons and other members of his household were killed. The
Khan took refuge with the Moghul forces outside of Pune, and Aurangzeb punished
him for this embarrassment with a transfer to Bengal.[33]
An Uzbek general, Kartalab
Khan, was sent by Shaista Khan to attack and reduce the
number of forts under Shivaji's control in the Konkan region on 3 February 1661. The 30,000 Mughal
troops left Pune, marching through the back-country in an attempt to surprise
the Marathas. In the Battle of Umberkhind,
Shivaji's forces ambushed and enveloped them with infantry and light cavalry in
the dense forests of Umber
Khind pass near present-day Pen. With defeat inevitable, the Mughal
commander, a Maratha woman named Raibagan,
advised Kartalab to parley with Shivaji, who allowed the Mughals to surrender
all their supplies and arms, and depart with safe passage.[citation needed] In
retaliation for Shaista Khan's attacks, and to replenish his now-depleted
treasury, in 1664 Shivaji sacked the city of Surat, a wealthy Mughal
trading centre.[33]
Raja Jai Singh of Amber receiving Shivaji a
day before concluding theTreaty of
Purandar.
Main
article: Treaty of
Purandar (1665)
Aurangzeb was enraged and sent Mirza Raja Jai Singh I with an army numbering around
150,000[34] to defeat Shivaji. Jai Singh's
forces made significant gains and captured many Maratha forts, forcing Shivaji
to come to terms with Aurangzeb rather than lose more forts and men.
In the Treaty of
Purandar, signed between Shivaji and Jai Singh on 11 June 1665,
Shivaji agreed to give up 23 of his forts and pay compensation of 400,000
rupees to the Mughals. He also agreed to let his son Sambhaji become a Mughal sardar, serve
the Mughal court of Aurangzeb and fight alongside the Mughals against Bijapur.[citation needed] He[who?] actually
fought alongside Jai Singh's against Bijapur's for a few months. His[who?] commander
Netaji Palkar joined the Mughals, was rewarded very well for his bravery,
converted to Islam, changed his name to Quli Mohammed Khan in 1666 and was sent
to the Afghan frontier to fight the restive tribes. He returned to Shivaji's
service in 1676 after ten years with the Mughals, and was accepted back as a
Hindu on Shivaji's advice.[citation needed]
In 1666, Aurangzeb invited Shivaji to Agra,
along with his nine-year-old son Sambhaji. Aurangzeb's plan was to send Shivaji
to Kandahar, now in Afghanistan, to consolidate
the Mughal empire's northwestern frontier. However, in the court, on 12 May
1666, Aurangzeb made Shivaji stand behind mansabdārs (military
commanders) of his court. Shivaji took offence and stormed out of court,[10]:78 and was promptly placed
under house arrest under the watch of Faulad
Khan, Kotwal of Agra. Shivaji's spies informed him that Aurangzeb
planned to move Shivaji to Raja
Vitthaldas' haveliand then to
possibly kill him or send him to fight in the Afghan frontier, so Shivaji
planned his escape.[citation needed]
Shivaji feigned severe illness and
requested to send most of his contingent back to the Deccan, thereby ensuring
the safety of his army and deceiving Aurangzeb. Thereafter, on his request, he
was allowed to send daily shipments of sweets and gifts to saints, fakirs, and
temples in Agra as offerings for his health.[citation needed]After
several days and weeks of sending out boxes containing sweets, Sambhaji, being
a child had no restrictions and was sent out of the prison camp and Shivaji,
disguised as labourer carrying sweet basket escaped on 17 August 1666,
according to the Mughal documents.[clarification
needed][35] Shivaji and his son fled to
the Deccan disguised as sadhus (holy men). After
the escape, rumours of Sambhaji's death were intentionally spread by Shivaji
himself in order to deceive the Mughals and to protect Sambhaji.[citation needed] Recent
research has proposed that Shivaji simply disguised himself as a Brahmin priest
after performance of religious rites at the haveli grounds on
22 July 1666, and escaped by mingling within the departing priestly entourage
of Pandit Kavindra
Paramananda. Sambhaji was removed from Agra and taken to Mathura
later by Shivaji's trusted men.[36]
Statue of Shivaji near Torna Fort
After Shivaji's escape, hostilities ebbed
and a treaty lasted until the end of 1670, when Shivaji launched a major
offensive against Mughals, and in a span of four months recovered a major
portion of the territories surrendered to Mughals. During this phase, Tanaji Malusare won the fort of Sinhgad in the Battle of Sinhagad on
4 Feb 1670, dying in the process.[citation needed] Shivaji
sacked Surat for second time in 1670; while he was returning from Surat,
Mughals under Daud Khan tried to intercept him, but were defeated in the Battle
of Vani-Dindori near present-dayNashik.[citation needed]
In October 1670, Shivaji sent his forces to
harass the British at Bombay; as they had refused to sell him war material, his
forces blocked Bombay's woodcutting parties. In September 1671, Shivaji sent an
ambassador to Bombay, again seeking material, this time for the fight against
Danda-Rajpuri; the British had misgivings of the advantages Shivaji would gain
from this conquest, but also did not want to lose any chance of receiving
compensation for his looting their factories at Rajapur. The British sent Lieutenant Stephen
Ustick to treat with Shivaji, but negotiations failed over the
issue of the Rajapur indemnity. Numerous exchanges of envoys followed over the
coming years, with some agreement as to the arms issues in 1674, but Shivaji
was never to pay the Rajpur indemnity before his death, and the factory there
dissolved at the end of 1682.[37]
In 1674, Prataprao Gujar, the then commander-in chief
of the Maratha forces, was sent to push back the invading force led by the
Adilshahi general, Bahlol
Khan. Prataprao's forces defeated and captured the opposing general
in the battle, after cutting-off their water supply by encircling a strategic
lake, which prompted Bahlol Khan to sue for peace. In spite of Shivaji's
specific warnings against doing so Prataprao released Bahlol Khan, who started
preparing for a fresh invasion.[citation needed]
Towers of the Raigad Fort.
Shivaji sent a displeased letter to
Prataprao, refusing him audience until Bahlol Khan was re-captured. In the
ensuing days, Shivaji learnt of Bahlol Khan having camped with 15,000 force at
Nesari near Kolhapur. Not wanting to
risk losing his much smaller Maratha force entirely, Prataprao and six of his
sardars attacked in a suicide mission, buying time for Anandrao
Mohite to withdraw the remainder of the army to safety.[38][verification needed] The
Marathas avenged the death of Prataprao by defeating Bahlol Khan and capturing
his jagir (fiefdom) under the leadership of Anaji and Hambirao Mohite. Shivaji was deeply grieved on
hearing of Prataprao's death; he arranged for the marriage of his second son, Rajaram, to
Prataprao's daughter. Anandrao Mohite became Hambirrao Mohite, the new sarnaubat (commander-in-chief
of the Maratha forces). Raigad Fort was
newly built[when?] by Hiroji
Indulkar as a capital of nascent Maratha kingdom.[13]
The coronation of Shivaji
Image of Shivaji released
by VS Bendrey in
1933
Shivaji had acquired extensive lands and
wealth through his campaigns, but lacking a formal title was still technically
a Mughal zamindar or the son of an Adilshahi jagirdar, with no legal basis to
rule his de facto domain. A kingly title could address this, and also prevent
any challenges by other Maratha leaders, to whom he was technically equal; it
would also would provide the Hindu Marathas with a fellow Hindu sovereign in a
region otherwise ruled by Muslims.[4]:238
Shivaji was crowned king of the Marathas in
a lavish ceremony at Raigad on 6 June 1674.[12][13][39] In the Hindu calendar it was on the 13th day (trayodashi)
of the firstfortnight of the month of Jyeshtha in the year 1596.[40] Pandit Gaga Bhatt officiated, holding a
gold vessel filled with the seven sacred waters of the rivers Yamuna, Indus,Ganges, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri over Shivaji's head, and chanted the coronation
mantras. After the ablution, Shivaji bowed before Jijabai and touched her feet.
Nearly fifty thousand people gathered at Raigad for the ceremonies.[citation needed] Shivaji
was bestowed with the sacred thread jaanva, with the Vedas and
was bathed in anabhisheka. Shivaji
was entitled Shakakarta ("founder of an era")[29] and Kshatriya
Kulavantas ("head of Kshatriyas"),[41] andChhatrapati ("paramount
sovereign").
His mother Jijabai died on 18 June 1674,
within a few days of the coronation. Considering this a bad omen, a second
coronation was carried out 24 September 1674, this time according to the
Bengali school of Tantricism and
presided over byNischal
Puri.[42]
The state as Shivaji founded it was a
Maratha kingdom comprising about 4.1% of the subcontinent at the time he died,[12]but over time it was to increase in
size and heterogeneity,[43] and by the time of the Peshwas
in the early 18th century the Marathas were dominant across the northern and
central regions of the Indian subcontinent.[44]
Beginning in 1674, the Marathas undertook
an aggressive campaign, raiding Khandesh (October), capturing Bijapuri Ponda(April
1675),[45] Karwar (mid-year), and Kolhapur (July).[citation needed] In
November the Maratha navy skirmished with theSiddis
of Janjira, and in early 1676 Peshwa Pingale, en route to Surat,
engaged the Raja of Ramnagar in battle.[citation needed] Shivaji
raided Athani in
March 1676, and by year's end besieged Belgaum and Vayem
Rayim in modern-day northern Karnataka. At the end of 1676,
Shivaji launched a wave of conquests in southern India, with a massive force of
30,000 cavalry and 20,000 infantry.[citation needed] He
captured the Adilshahi forts at Vellore and Gingee, in modern-day Tamil Nadu.
In the run-up to this expedition Shivaji
appealed to a sense of Deccani patriotism, that the "Deccan" or
Southern India was a homeland that should be protected from outsiders.[46] His appeal was somewhat
successful and he entered into a treaty with the Qutubshah of the Golconda sultanate that covered the
eastern Deccan. Shivají's conquests in the south proved quite crucial during
future wars; Gingee served as Maratha capital for nine years during the Maratha
War of Independence.
Shivaji intended to reconcile with his
stepbrother Venkoji (Ekoji I), Shahji's son by his
second wife, Tukabai of the Mohite clan which ruled Thanjavur
(Tanjore) after Shahaji. The initially promising negotiations were
unsuccessful,[citation needed] so
whilst returning to Raigad Shivaji defeated his stepbrother's army on 26
November 1677 and seized most of his possessions in theMysore plateau. Venkoji's wife Dipa Bai, whom Shivaji
deeply respected, took up new negotiations with Shivaji, and also convinced her
husband to distance himself from Muslim advisors. In the end Shivaji consented
to turn over to her and her female descendants many of the properties he had
seized, with Venkoji consenting to a number of conditions for the proper
administration of the territories and maintenance of Shivaji's future tomb.[47][48][49]
Sambhaji, Shivaji's elder son who succeeded
him.
See
also: Maratha War of
Independence
The question of Shivaji's heir-apparent was
complicated by the misbehaviour of his eldest son Sambhaji, who was
irresponsible and "addicted to sensual pleasures." Unable to curb
this, Shivaji confined his son to Panhala in 1678, only to have the prince escape
with his wife and defect to the Mughals for a year. Sambhaji then returned
home, unrepentant, and was again confined to Panhala.[50]:551
In late March 1680, Shivaji fell ill with
fever and dysentery,[4]:383 dying around 3–5 April 1680
at the age of 52,[15]:278 on the eve of Hanuman Jayanti. Rumours followed his death,
with Muslims opining he had died of a curse from Jan Muhammad of Jalna,
and some Marathas whispering that his second wife, Soyarabai, had poisoned him so that his crown
might pass to her 10-year-old son Rajaram.[4]:383
After Shivaji's death, the widowed
Soyarabai made plans with various ministers of the administration to crown her
son Rajaram rather than her prodigal stepson Sambhaji. On 21 April 1680,
ten-year-old Rajaram was installed on the throne. However, Sambhaji took possession
of the Raigad Fort after
killing the commander, and on 18 June acquired control of Raigad, and formally
ascended the throne on 20 July.[50][51]Rajaram, his wife Janki Bai, and
mother Soyrabai were imprisoned, and Soyrabai executed on charges of conspiracy
that October.[52]
Aurangzeb's son Muhammad Akbar had
a falling-out with his father and joined forces with Sambhaji, thereafter
Aurangzeb personally led his army to attack the Maratha forces. Sambhaji was
captured, tortured and executed at Tulapur in 1689 by the Mughals.
Leadership of the disarrayed Marathas then returned to Rajaram, who served as
regent during the minority of his stepbrother's son Shahu,[53] and was forced to move his
capital from Raigad to Gingee.[citation needed]
Thereafter the Maratha forces stabilised
and began to undertake raids on the Mughal columns. Able generals such asDhanaji Jadhav and Santaji Ghorpade took the initiative and
effectively bogged down the powerful but slow-moving Mughal army during the Deccan Wars. In 1697 Aurangzeb, in poor
health, withdrew from the Deccan for the last time, and recalled his full army
a few years later, opening up the Deccan to Maratha domination.[citation needed]
In 1752, the Maratha Peshwa signed a treaty with Mughal emperor Ahmad Shah Bahadur,
giving the Marathas significant control and revenues within the remaining
Mughal territories, in exchange for their protecting the Mughals from their
enemies. This treaty brought the Maratha into conflict with the Mughal's
opponent, Ahmad Shah Durrani,
founder of an Afghan empire. The Durrani forces defeated the Maratha at the 1761 Battle of
Panipat checking the Maratha's northward expansion.[citation needed] The Third Anglo-Maratha
War of 1818 ended the role of the Marathas in the Indian
subcontinent.
Shivaji along with his
ministers in the courtyard.
Shivaji was an able administrator who
established a government that included modern concepts such as cabinet (Ashtapradhan mandal composed of
eight ministers), foreign affairs (Dabir)
and internal intelligence.[citation needed]
Though Persian was a common courtly
language in the region, Shivaji replaced it with Marathi in his own court, and
emphasised Hindu political and courtly traditions.[54] The house of Shivaji was well
acquainted with Sanskrit and promoted the language; his father Shahaji had
supported scholars such as Jayram
Pindye, who prepared Shivaji's seal. Shivaji continued this Sanskrit
promotion, giving his forts names such as Sindhudurg, Prachandgarh, and Suvarndurg. He
named theAshta Pradhan (council
of ministers) as per Sanskrit nomenclature with terms such as nyayadhish,
and senapat, and commissioned the political treatise Rajyavyavahar
Kosh. His rajpurohit, Keshav Pandit, was himself a Sanskrit scholar
and poet.[55]
Sajjangad where Swami Ramadasa was
invited by Shivaji to reside, now a pilgrimage.
Shivaji was a devout Hindu,
but respected all religions within the region. Shivaji had great respect for
other contemporary saints, especially Samarth Ramdas, to whom he gave the fort of
Parali, later renamed as 'Sajjangad'. Among the
various poems written on Shivaji, Ramdas' Shivastuti ("Praise
of King Shivaji") is the most famous.[56] Shivaji's son Sambhaji later
built a samadhi for Ramdas Swami on Sajjangad upon the latter's death. Samarth
Ramdas had also written a letter to Sambhaji guiding him on what to do and what
not to do after death of Shivaji.[57]
Shivaji allowed his subjects freedom of religion and
opposed forced conversion.[7]Shivaji also promulgated other
enlightened values, and condemned slavery.[58] He applied a humane and
liberal policy to the women of his state.[59][page needed] Kafi Khan, the Mughal historian and Francois Bernier, a French traveller, spoke
highly of his religious policy. He also brought converts like Netaji Palkar and Bajaji back into
Hinduism.
Shivaji's contemporary, the poet Kavi Bhushan stated: Had not
there been Shivaji, Kashi would have lost its culture, Mathura would have been
turned into a mosque and all would have been circumcised”.[60]
Though many of Shivaji's enemy states were
Muslim, he treated Muslims under his rule with tolerance for their religion.
Shivaji's sentiments of inclusivity and tolerance of other religions can be
seen in an admonishing letter to Aurangzeb, in which he wrote:
Verily, Islam and Hinduism are terms of
contrast. They are used by the true Divine Painter for blending the colours and
filling in the outlines. If it is a mosque, the call to prayer is chanted in
remembrance of Him. If it is a temple, the bells are rung in yearning for Him
alone.[59]
Shivaji had several noteworthy Muslim
soldiers, especially in his Navy. Ibrahim Khan and Daulat Khan (both were African
descendants) were prominent in the navy; and Siddi
Ibrahim was chief of artillery.[59] Muslim soldiers were known for
their superior skills in naval and artillery combat skills.
The French traveller Francois Bernier wrote in his Travels
in Mughal India:
"I forgot to mention that during
pillage of Sourate, Seva-ji, the Holy Seva-ji! Respected the habitation of the
reverend father Ambrose, the Capuchin missionary.
'The Frankish Padres are good men', he said 'and shall not be attacked.' He
spared also the house of a deceased Delale or Gentile broker, of the Dutch,
because assured that he had been very charitable while alive."
Sivaji and Army
Shivaji demonstrated great skill in
creating his military organisation, which lasted till the demise of the Maratha
empire. He also built a powerful navy. Maynak Bhandariwas one of the first chiefs of
the Maratha Navy under Shivaji, and helped in both building the Maratha Navy
and safeguarding the coastline of the emerging Maratha Empire. He built new
forts like Sindhudurg and
strengthened old ones like Vijaydurgon the west coast.[citation needed] The
Maratha navy held its own against the British,Portuguese and Dutch.[61] He was one of the pioneers of
commando actions, then known as ganimi kava[62] (Marathi: "enemy trickery"[63]) His Mavala army's war cry was Har
Har Mahadev ( Har and Mahadev being
common names of Hindu GodShiva).[citation needed] Shivaji
was responsible for many significant changes in military organisation:
·
A
standing army belonging to the state, called paga.
·
All
war horses belonged to the state; responsibility for their upkeep rested on the
Sovereign.
·
Creation
of part-time soldiers from peasants who worked for eight months in their fields
and supported four months in war for which they were paid.
·
Highly
mobile and light infantry and cavalry excelling in commando tactics.
·
The
introduction of a centralized intelligence department; Bahirjee Naik was the
foremost spy who provided Shivaji with enemy information in all of Shivaji's
campaigns.
·
A
potent and effective navy.
·
Introduction
of field craft, such as guerrilla warfare, commando actions, and swift flanking
attacks. Field-Marshal Montgomery, in his "History of Warfare",[64] while generally dismissive of
the quality of generalship in the military history of the Indian subcontinent,
makes an exception for Shivaji and Baji Rao I. Summarizing Shivaji's mastery of
guerilla tactics, Montgomery describes him as a military genius.
·
Innovation
of weapons and firepower, innovative use of traditional weapons like the tiger
claw (vaghnakh) and vita.
·
Militarisation
of large swathes of society, across all classes, with the entire peasant
population of settlements and villages near forts actively involved in their
defence.[citation needed]
Shivaji realised the importance of having a
secure coastline and protecting the western Konkan coastline from the attacks of Siddi's fleet.[citation needed][4] His strategy was to build a
strong navy to protect and bolster his kingdom. He was also concerned about the
growing dominance of British Indian naval
forces in regional waters and actively sought to resist it. For this reason he
is also referred to as the "Father of Indian Navy".[65]
Suvela Machi, view of
southern sub-plateaux, as seen from Ballekilla,Rajgad.
Main
article: Shivaji's forts
Shivaji captured strategically important
forts at Murambdev (Rajgad), Torana, Kondana (Sinhagad) and Purandar and laid
the foundation of swaraj or self-rule. Toward the end of his
career, he had a control of 360 forts to secure his growing kingdom. Shivaji
himself constructed about 15–20 totally new forts (including key sea forts like
Sindhudurg), but he also rebuilt or repaired many strategically placed forts[66] to create a chain of 300 or
more, stretched over a thousand kilometres across the rugged crest of the Western Ghats. Each were placed under three
officers of equal status lest a single traitor be bribed or tempted to deliver
it to the enemy. The officers (sabnis, havaldar, sarnobat) acted jointly and
provided mutual checks and balance.[citation needed]
Sindudurg Fort provided anchorages for
Shivaji's Navy.
Shivaji built a strong naval presence
across long coast of Konkan and Goa to protect sea trade, to protect the lands
from sack of prosperity of subjects from coastal raids, plunder and destruction
by Arabs, Portuguese, British, Abyssiniansand pirates. Shivaji built ships in
towns such as Kalyan, Bhivandi, and Goa for
building fighting navy as well as trade. He also built a number of sea forts
and bases for repair, storage and shelter. Shivaji fought many lengthy battles
with Siddis of Janjira on coastline. The fleet grew to reportedly 160 to 700
merchant, support and fighting vessels. He started trading with foreigners on
his own after possession of eight or nine ports in the Deccan. Shivaji's
admiral Kanhoji Angre is
often said to be the "Father of Indian Navy".[4][67]
Statue of Shivaji at Raigad Fort.
Today, Shivaji is considered as a national
hero in India,[68] especially in the state ofMaharashtra, where he remains arguably the
greatest figure in the state's history. Stories of his life form an integral
part of the upbringing and identity of the Marathi people. Further, he is also
recognised as a warrior legend, who sowed the seeds of Indian independence.[68]
Nineteenth century Hindu revivalist Swami Vivekanada considered Shivaji a
hero and paid glowing tributes to his wisdom.[69] When Indian Nationalist
leader, Lokmanya Tilak organised
a festival to mark the birthday celebrations of Shivaji, Vivekananda agreed to
preside over the festival in Bengal in 1901.[70] He wrote about Shivaji :[69]
|
“
|
Shivaji is one of the greatest national saviours who emancipated our
society and our Hindu dharma when
they were faced with the threat of total destruction. He was a peerless hero,
a pious and God-fearing king and verily a manifestation of all the virtues of
a born leader of men described in our ancient scriptures. He also embodied
the deathless spirit of our land and stood as the light of hope for our
future.
|
”
|
Shivaji's role in the research and the
popular conception has developed over time and place, ranging from early
British and Moghul depiction of him as a bandit or a "mountain
mouse",[71] to modern near-deification as
a hero of all Indians.
One of the early commentators who
challenged the negative British view was M. G. Ranade, whose Rises of the
Maratha Power (1900) declared Shivaji's achievements as the beginning
of modern nation-building. Ranade criticised earlier British portrayals of
Shivaji's state as "a freebooting Power, which thrived by plunder and
adventure, and succeeded only because it was the most cunning and
adventurous... This is a very common feeling with the readers, who derive their
knowledge of these events solely from the works of English historians."[72]
At the end of the 19th century, Shivaji's
memory was leveraged by the non-Brahmin intellectuals of Bombay, who identified
as his descendants and through him claimed the Kshatriya varna. While some
Brahmins rebutted this identity, defining them as of the lower Shudra varna, other Brahmins recognised the Maratha's
role in the Indian independence movement, and endorsed this Kshatriya legacy
and the significance of Shivaji.[73]
As political tensions rose in India in the
early 20th century, some Indian leaders came to re-work their earlier stances
on Shivaji's role. Jawaharlal Nehru had
in 1934 noted "Some of the Shivaji's deeds, like the treacherous
killing of the Bijapur general, lower him greatly in our estimation."
Following public outcry from Pune intellectuals, Congress leader Deogirikarnoted
that Nehru had admitted he was wrong regarding Shivaji, and now endorsed
Shivaji as great nationalist.[74]
In 2003, American academic James W. Laine published his book Shivaji:
Hindu King in Islamic India, which was followed by heavy criticism
including threats of arrest.[75] As a result of this
publication, the Bhandarkar
Oriental Research Institute inPune where
Laine had researched was attacked by a group of Maratha activists calling
itself the Sambhaji Brigade.[76] The book was banned in Maharashtra in January 2004, but the ban
was lifted by the Bombay High Court in
2007, and in July 2010 the Supreme Court of
India upheld the lifting of ban.[77][78] This lifting was followed by
public demonstrations against the author and the decision of the Supreme Court.[79][80]
Shivaji remains a political icon in modern
India, and particularly in the state of Maharashtra. His image adorns
literature, propaganda and icons of the Maratha-centric Shiv Sena ("Army of Shivaji"[81]) party, the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata
Party and also of the Maratha caste dominated Congress parties
(namely, NCP and Indira) in Maharashtra.[82] Past Congress party leaders in
the state such as Yashwantrao Chavan were
considered political descendants of Shivaji.[83]
Shivaji's statues and monuments are found
in almost every town and city in Maharashtra, and across different Indian
cities outside Maharashtra, such as statues in Bangalore, Vadodara, Surat,[84] a monument in Agra,[85] a memorial in Delhi[86] a statue inside the premises
of the National Defence
Academy (NDA), Pune,[87] and an equestrian statue
inside theParliament House
complex in Delhi.[88] In deference to his pioneering
contributions to naval warfare in India, the Indian Navyhas named one of its bases after
Shivaji, christening it as INS
Shivaji.[89] The Government of India has
issued a postage stamp commemorating Shivaji,[90] and the The Reserve Bank of
India has considered issuing currency notes having his picture.[91] Mumbai international airport (then known as Bombay
International) was renamed the Chhatrapati
Shivaji International Airport in 1996, and the Victoria
Terminus railway station was similarly renamed as the Chhatrapati
Shivaji Terminusa few years later. A statue of Shivaji was also
placed within the forecourts of the international terminal, however it was
removed in 2011 (after many delays) to make way for the extension of the
terminal.[92] The Victoria Jubilee Technical
Institute was renamed after Shivaji's mother, to the Veermata
Jijabai Technological Institute. The renaming retained the acronym,
VJTI, by which the institute is popularly known.
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